Antique Maps: An Expert Guide

Antique map of Northern Europe by Gerard de Jode, 1593.

While nobody can say when the very first map was produced, it can be said however, that as soon as humankind discovered writing, or the use of symbols, that they were put to use in trying to understand their environment.

These early maps were our first attempt at deciphering our immediate habitat and how we fitted into it. Whether to explain a geographical barrier such as a mountain or river, to warn of dangers, or show a favourable trade route or the way to good hunting grounds.

What is believed to be the oldest map ever discovered is an engraved mammoth tusk that was was found in 1962 in Pavlov in the Moravian region of modern-day Czech Republic, dated to 25,000 BCE. 

Archaeologists believe that the engravings represent the landscape of Pavlov at the time, and may have been used as a hunting map.

Engraved mammoth tusk, possibly the oldest map or representation of a landscape, discovered in Pavlov, Southern Moravia, Czech Republic, 25,000 BCE

Engraved mammoth tusk, possibly the oldest map or representation of a landscape, discovered in Pavlov, Southern Moravia, Czech Republic, 25,000 BCE. Photo credit: Zde

Early prehistoric maps engraved on bones and stones, painted on cave walls and scratched onto clay tablets have been discovered across the world from Aboriginal Australia to France and Spain, to Anatolia and Babylonia.

All of these ancient peoples had a need to discover and record their environment, thousands of years ago.

When the Egyptians discovered papyrus, around 3,000 BCE, as a writing material, they used it to sketch plans. While the Greeks are recorded to have started with mapmaking around 600 BCE.

Anaximander of Miletus (c. 611–546 BCE), considered by many to be the first known mapmaker, is said to have to have constructed a map of the world. He believed this world to be a stone pillar that was suspended in space.

It is Aristotle (384–322 BC), however, who is credited with proving the Earth’s sphericity who argued that the lunar eclipse is always circular, ships seem to sink as they move away from view and pass the horizon, and that some stars can be seen only from certain parts of the Earth.

Eratosthenes (275–195 BC), a Greek scholar residing in Hellenistic North Africa, made the important contribution to understanding the world’s reality through a scientific calculation of the Earth’s circumference. This landmark achievement marked the first scientific endeavour to establish geographical studies on a solid mathematical foundation.

Over the coming centuries cartographers, theologians, astronomers and mathematicians all attempted to make sense of, and calculate, the size of the earth, its liveable areas, its geography and climatic zones.

While it is interesting to delve into the very early history of mapmaking it is beyond the scope of this short article, which relates to collecting maps produced within the last 600 years. 

As Europe began to burst from its borders at this time, its cartographers had an ever increasing demand for accurate maps and sea charts of the world. Whether it be for scientific expeditions, securing new trade routes or establishing the previously fluid borders of countries.

To understand these maps and how they relate to contemporary collectors, and thus their value, it is important to differentiate and identify the different materials used and methods of production, which are:

  • Paper.
  • Relief printing – woodcuts and wood engravings.
  • Intaglio printing – dry point, line engraving, etching, stipple engraving, mezzotint and aquatint.
  • Surface printing – lithography.
  • Colouring.
  • Condition.
The Hereford Mappa Mundi, map of the known world, circa 1300.

The Hereford Mappa Mundi, map of the known world, circa 1300.

Paper

While maps can certainly be found on vellum and parchment, most encountered by collectors will be on thick handmade paper from Germany, Switzerland and France, with the best from Northern Italy.

China had long been producing paper since ancient times, and the Arabs had learned its secrets by the eighth century, but it wasn’t until the 11th century that it arrived in Europe.

Initially considered considered an inferior product by Europeans, to parchment, it wasn’t until later in the 12th century that it began to be manufactured in the Italian town of Fabriano

It was then looked upon as a luxury item but by the 14th century availability had increased significantly. Despite this, paper of significant quality was not produced in England until the early 17th century, with most being imported from France up until that time.

Nearly all early paper used has a watermark, which can be a useful guide to dating a map, though they should be treated with caution and not the only indicator of age. For example, a batch of paper may have been used for a certain limited number of prints of a period of several decades.

A watermark then should only be used in conjunction with other clues, and not the determining factor in dating a map. Also, the absence of a watermark does not mean the map is a fake nor does it necessarily have any effect on its value.

In addition, the size of trays that were used for making handmade paper were mostly standard, as well as the printing presses available.

At first, this paper was made almost entirely of old rags and linen that were pulped into individual fibres in water. To form the paper sheet, a mould and deckle are used. 

The mould is a close-meshed wire tray, while the deckle is a frame without a screen that fits over the mould. The mould and deckle is dipped into the fibre suspension, and then lifted out, allowing the water to drain through the mesh screen, capturing the required thickness of fibres on the screen.

This wet layer is then transferred onto felt to removed excess water and then hung to dry, a process known as couching. The wire mesh, where the watermark motif is too, leaves behind distinct vertical and horizontal lines that can be seen when holding the paper up to the light.

Once one recognises the look of this handmade paper it can be used to quickly distinguish between early maps and ones produced much later on modern machine made paper. 

SEBASTIAN MÜNSTER: Typus Cosmographicus Universalis, world map first published in 1532 in a collection of of voyages by Johann Huttich, edited by Simon Grynaeus. Sometimes attributed to Hans Holbein the Younger.

SEBASTIAN MÜNSTER: Typus Cosmographicus Universalis, world map first published in 1532 in a collection of voyages by Johann Huttich, edited by Simon Grynaeus. Sometimes attributed to Hans Holbein the Younger.

Woodcuts and Wood Engravings

In terms of printing, the earliest technique for making maps involved transferring a relief cut wood block onto paper. Here, the mapmaker carves the design into a block of wood, removing the areas that are not to be printed. 

Woods such as beech and sycamore were used, which must be carved in the direction of the woods grain. The blocks surface is then covered with ink and applied to the paper with pressure, leaving behind an impression.

As far back as the 8th century, China was already using this technique, but in Europe, it was not until around 1400, in Central Germany, that block prints first appeared, where there already was a strong tradition of wood carving.

While woodcuts gave a good, bold and simple, black and white finish, they normally show little subtlety, shading or graduation of tone. Lettering on maps were often cut separately in metal and fitted into pre-cut holes in the block.

Blocks could then be brought up to date by easily resetting this type, or be re-cut or infilled.

However, blocks used for long periods gradually lost their sharpness, a fact in its self that can be a useful clue to dating.

With wood engravings the design is incised into a woodblock using similar tools as a metal engraving. The design is usually engraved across the end grain of the block, which is very hard and thus allows much finer detail than a woodcut.

SEBASTIAN MÜNSTER: Afrika Lybia Morland mit allen kunigsreichen so zu unsern zeiten darin gefunden werden (Africa/Libyen/Morenland, with all the kingdoms found therein in our time). Printed by Heinrich Petri in 1550.

SEBASTIAN MÜNSTER: Afrika Lybia Morland mit allen kunigsreichen so zu unsern zeiten darin gefunden werden (Africa/Libyen/Morenland, with all the kingdoms found therein in our time). Printed by Heinrich Petri in 1550.

Engravings

As mentioned above, the use of wood block printing logically developed where there was already a practice of wood carving. Maps produced there in the periods between 1450 and 1550 were mostly included in books, and not as stand alone sheets.

Around about 1550, the centre of mapmaking moved away from Germany to Italy, where copper engraving was already well established within the printing trade. The incorporation of this technique into map printing was a natural progression.

By result, less and less woodcut maps appeared by the middle of the century, with engraving on copper introducing more sheet maps.

Line engraving is an intaglio technique that involves making incisions or grooves into a printing plate, usually copper but steel was also used from around 1830, with a burin. The plate is incised with lines at various angles and pressures, which will determine how much ink each line can hold. 

The plate is then covered in ink and then wiped clean so it only remains in the incisions. The plate is then placed in a printing press and the pressure forces the paper into its incisions where it absorbs the ink. This is the oldest form of intaglio printmaking and one of the most skilful.

Like relief printing, the ‘plate mark’ can also be observed on the unprinted border surrounding the map as an indent from the pressure of the metal plate as it was squeezed against the paper from the press.

The natural hardness of these metal plates allowed them to be use for decades without any degradation. Some of the plates for John Speed’s (1552-1629) maps were still in use 150 years after they first appeared. 

The comparatively soft copper allowed later engravers to add in any updates by beating out outdated information and then cutting in new detail. This can be used for dating maps when studying a print that has had many editions over the years.

JOHN SPEED: A Newe Map of Tartary, first published in 1626, from the first world atlas produced in England.

JOHN SPEED: A Newe Map of Tartary, first published in 1626, from the first world atlas produced in England.

Lithography

If you’ve ever looked at a bottle of undisturbed salad vinaigrette you will have noticed that the oil and vinegar in its ingredients don’t mix. This is the basic premise of how lithographs are created.

It involves applying a greasy medium such as an oily ink onto a stone or plate. The image to be printed is drawn onto the plate using litho crayons or special greasy pencils. The plate is then treated with a mixture of acid and gum arabic, etching the portions that are not protected by the greasy image.

This will produce different areas that are grease or water receptive. The surface of the plate is kept wet with water and applied with a roller of the greasy ink, which would thus only stick to its receptive area of the image. Paper is then placed on the image and it is passed through the press.

In other words, unlike woodcuts were the design is cut in relief, or line engravings were the design is cut into the surface, lithographs are printed from an entirely flat surface, or planographic process. 

Lithography wasn’t used in great quantity until around 1820. By 1860 it had become mechanised, where it was used for all manner of print production.

SAMUEL AUGUSTUS MITCHELL JR: Map of Persia, Turkey in Asia. Afghanistan, Beloochistan. First published in 1862.

SAMUEL AUGUSTUS MITCHELL JR: Map of Persia, Turkey in Asia. Afghanistan, Beloochistan. First published in 1862.

Colouring

Initially, all maps were printed using black ink, although there are examples of early 16th century maps with place names printed in red. 

It wasn’t long, however, that cartographers realised that colouring their maps helped to sell them, and their products were sometimes offered as coloured or plain.

While engraved maps were sometimes hand-coloured before issue, it was a laborious and expensive process, and as such, many were sold uncoloured.

The majority of maps published prior to the 1830s were printed using black ink, with a few exceptions. Many early maps have been coloured since the mid 20th century by dealers or other members of the trade to ‘enhance’ them.

When judging the colour of a map, one must decide whether it is appropriate to its age and origin, and whether it visually enhances it. Whether a map should be coloured or not is often down to the personal preference of the individual collector.

GUILLAUME DANET: L'Afrique Dressée Sur les Relations & nouvelles decouvertes de Differns Voyageurs… Map of Africa, 1732.

GUILLAUME DANET: L’Afrique Dressée Sur les Relations & nouvelles decouvertes de Differns Voyageurs… Map of Africa, 1732.

Condition

When appraising an antique map, it is important to quickly note the overall first impression that it gives one, and ask a few questions. Is it attractive? Does it look and feel old? Does its have any glaring defects?

These are things that are noticeable immediately. One can then proceed onto taking a closer look. Are there any tears, worm damage, stains or foxing to the paper? Has this caused any loss to the printed surface?

Further looking at the paper, have the margins been trimmed or has the plate mark been completely removed? Is there a centrefold, and how worn is it? If the map has been glued down onto a backing, it can all but destroy its value, particularly if a modern glue has been used.

Old tape can leave unsightly staining and marks, while a map that looks too pristine or white may have been over-restored. Marginalia can sometimes be found, which may reduce, or enhance a maps value.

Maps, whether they were originally bound in an atlas or printed as stand alone sheets, were meant to be handled. This has left many in grubby and worn condition, which in most cases is acceptable, and can even be desirable. 

Colour pigments can degrade and damage paper as well. While colour can fade, lessening the impact of a pristine map, certain pigments, notably green, can erode the paper, or transfer to its opposite side in relation to the centrefold.

Does the edition exhibit a dark and crisp appearance? A weak, faded, or blurred print will be less desirable. Such impressions are often indicative of either the use of a worn printing plate or a low-quality pull, caused by insufficient ink or inadequate printing pressure. 

However, keep in mind that, in general, prints from wood blocks tend to have less sharpness compared to those produced from engraved copper or steel plates.

As with all antiques, condition, originality and absence of bad restoration or alteration, play a significant part in determining a maps value.

Collecting antique maps is a captivating journey through history, art, and geography. By understanding the characteristics of original maps, dating techniques, rarity, famous cartographers, and caring for these valuable artefacts, you can develop a unique and treasured collection that provides enjoyment and potential investment returns. 

Remember to conduct thorough research, seek expert advice, and take proper care of your maps to ensure their preservation for future generations.

GEORG BRAUN & FRANS HOGENBERG: Lutetia vulgari Nomine Paris…, one of the earliest maps of Paris, which appeared in volume 1 of Braun & Hogenberg's 6 volume Civititas Orbis Terrarum, 1572.

GEORG BRAUN & FRANS HOGENBERG: Lutetia vulgari Nomine Paris…, one of the earliest maps of Paris, which appeared in volume 1 of Braun & Hogenberg’s 6 volume Civititas Orbis Terrarum, 1572.

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